This article first appeared in the Winter 2024 issue of Antiques to Vintage Magazine. Written by Elizabeth Cheung and edited by Julie Carter.
Despite being closed off for much of modern history, Japan’s artistic impact on the West in the late 19th century was explosive. Monet’s wife wore a kimono in the painting La Japonaise, whilst Degas and Van Gogh had a number of works inspired directly by ukiyo-e woodblock prints. Sydney dealer Billy Robertson and his social media director and research partner, Elizabeth Cheung, look at the intrigue behind some masterworks of Meiji.
All of this can be traced back to the tumultuous period of transition between the Edo and Meiji, known in Japan as the bakumatsu period. Despite it being a turbulent time in history, it was also a period of transformation, leading to great artistic innovation in Japan as well as the West. The sweeping changes that occurred in this period can scarcely be described in one article, but here we examine two fields in particular that are emblematic of Meiji modernity: the political intrigues behind the intricate arts of cloisonne and Satsuma porcelain, and the ingenuity of artists who overcame various obstacles to become pioneers of this art form.
In the first half of the 19th century, Japan was enforcing what is now known as the locked kingdom or sakukoku policy. Despite this name, however, Japan had several ports open to foreigners, including Nagasaki as well as ‘treaty ports’. Through these ports Japan traded with its neighbours China and Korea, as well as the Dutch East Indies Company.
By this time, however, other western nations were nipping at the heels of the Dutch; their mercantile profits, particularly those gained by controlling the lucrative Eastern spice routes, aroused envy and jealousy. The British and European empires, particularly the unparalleled British navy, were ready to overturn this status quo. And yet it was America, a young nation fresh from its own war of independence, that succeeded in cracking the shell of this hermit kingdom with the help of one Commodore Perry.
Through a series of calculated manoeuvres designed to show the might of the American military, including bluffing and a demonstration of overwhelming firepower, Perry succeeded in dealing the sakukoku policy a mortal blow. His tactics were inventive and varied and included sailing to Edo, the Japanese capital of the time, taking with him a variety of gifts for the Japanese Emperor including a working model of a steam locomotive, a telescope, a telegraph and a variety of wines and liquors from the West, all intended to impress upon the Japanese the superiority of Western culture along with showing a willingness to use force. Perry succeeded in gaining an audience with the shogun, opening the door to successive treaties with the previously inaccessible Tokugawa shogunate.
The overall situation in Japan was some-what less peaceful. A combination of factors, such as the youth of the newly ascended shogun and the infighting of various powerful daimyo, led to the bakumatsu, i.e. the weakening of the bakufu. Enemies were both within the halls and at the gates; the bakufu, shogunate officials who had ruled for centuries, were largely unprepared for this unprecedented change. However, the powerful daimyo - feudal lords who ruled various domains -each had their own thoughts. Many southern domains who were exposed to western incursions sent students to Nagasaki to secretly study western weaponry. By 1852 the powerful Satsuma and Saga domains had furnaces capable of producing iron for firearms, although the urgency was unfelt by the central government until 1853. By then, however, it was too late. With each successive treaty, it was made clear to the bakufu that the problems - or the barbarians - were not going to go away. By 1868 a seismic shift had taken place with the Meiji Restoration, transferring power from the shogunate to the emperor for the first time in centuries. The newly restored imperial government soon declared a series of measures designed to bring Japan into the 19th century. A modern railway network was built; in a few decades from 1872 to 1890, more than 2250 kilometres of rail was laid down. Telegraph lines between all major cities ensured speedy communication by 1880 and the first European-style banking system was founded in 1882. With the sakoku policy having collapsed overnight, a remarkable cultural shift took place. A new ideological position emerged: 和魂洋才 which roughly translates as ‘Western techniques, Japanese soul’.
Yet as the imperial court ushered Japan into the 19th century, many of the feudal lords believed the modernisation process had gone too far. Despite having been instrumental in the Meiji restoration, the Satsuma domain launched a widespread rebellion in 1877. Having held the reins of power in their territory for centuries, the Shimazu clan was not to be underestimated. Although they continued to export porcelain to the west during this time, their political positioning on the world stage clearly expressed that they held themselves apart from the Meiji government.
Satsuma Shuzan maple and wisteria porcelain vase, Meiji period, last quarter of 19th century. 13.5cm high x 6.5cm diam, $440. Cache Antiques, Sydney.
The Shimazu clan had used exhibitions of Satsuma pottery to express their political opinions for decades; during the Paris Exposition in 1867 their porcelain was displayed under the Satsuma domain flag rather than under the Japanese flag, a subtle yet pointed indication that they were to be considered as operating individually. Indeed, western nations such as Britain traded separately with them in order to gain access to their porcelain, which was considered amongst the most desirable in the world.
Satsuma porcelain vase Meiji period, 1870s to 1890s. 10cm high x 5cm diam, $500. Cache Antiques, Sydney.
With their hallmarks of rich gilding and exquisite painted designs, the Satsuma potters won many awards in the 19th century. Nevertheless, the Satsuma Rebellion of 1877 ended tragically, decisively signalling the downfall of the samurai class and the power of modern weaponry. The legacy lived on in the many exquisite examples of Satsuma porcelain produced and Satsuma ware remains highly collectable today.
Antique Japanese Meiji period Satsuma hexagonal vase by Kozan c.1860s to 1890s. 23.5cm high, $2000. Cache Antiques, Sydney.
Despite these events the Meiji modernisation was ultimately a welcome boon to artists, including one young cloisonne artist named Hayashi Kodenji. Born in 1831, as a young man he witnessed the turmoil of the bakumatsu; the emergency measure of the shogunate government at the time included strict prohibitions on selling copper, in part due to currency crises arising from massive government spending and indemnities paid to foreign governments. In order to skirt these prohibitive measures, Kodenji would walk from Nagoya to Yokohama to sell his wares, a journey of over 300 kilometres that would take up to a week.
By 1859, Nagasaki, Hakodate and Yokohama were opened as treaty ports to much of the West.With that came a massive influx of foreign trade, including an increase in raw materials. With previous restrictions lifted, Nagoya became one of the great centres of the cloisonne trade and in later decades Kodenji became instrumental in setting up Shippo Kaisha, the largest cloisonne company in Nagoya.
German scientists such as Gottfried Wagener were brought in to improve the manufacturing process, pioneering techniques that made enamels more vibrant than ever. Their efforts bore fruit when they received international recognition in Vienna in 1873, followed by Nuremberg (1885), Paris (1889) and St Louis (1904), where the company won multiple awards.
A trend arose of artists incorporating western techniques and material in their art, while preserving Japanese themes and characteristics. Cloisonne, and variations thereof such as plique-a-jour, evolved to become increasingly sophisticated.
Motivated to prove their artistry and sophistication were in no way inferior to the west, artists were sponsored by the imperial government to go abroad to participate in various World Exhibitions. The Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1867 in particular was pivotal in introducing Japanese art to the west, and japonisme immediately became en vogue. Pottery from that period is to this day considered some of the finest produced by Japan and was a foundation of Japanese trade with the west during the Meiji period.
With the plethora of new materials, techniques and now the siren call of a whole new continent demanding their wares, artists in every field in Japan exploded in creative fervour. Foreign trade was an impetus in their work, as internal turmoil meant that craftsmen were increasingly ready to expand their customer base.
Innovations such as totai shippo - intricately worked cloisonne on porcelain - as well as new firing and enamelling methods meant that cloisonne as an art reached its pinnacle during this period.
Asides from imperial aspirations, astute craftsmen seized this penchant for all things new and incorporated cloisonne techniques with modern marvels, as seen in this rare and astonishing Meiji period cloisonne electrical lamp, above. It is a fine example of the forward thinking of the time, merging electric lighting design (cutting-edge at the time) with traditional Chinese style thick wires and blue palette. With electricity being introduced to Japan in 1878, the swift decision of some artists to adapt as well as the welcoming mood of the general public meant that by 1896, there were no less than 33 electric companies throughout Japan.
It was thanks to pioneers such as Kodenji that later artists could flourish under imperial auspices, as seen in the fascinating case of what is now known as the Khalili Imperial Garniture. By this time, the Meiji restoration was well and truly underway and the Chrysanthemum Throne knew that art was a cultural weapon that served its interests. This was made clear both in the execution of the garniture and the manoeuvres undertaken by Japanese diplomats to ensure the garniture took pride of place.
A fascinating example of artistic ingenuity and political savvy, the Khalili Imperial Garniture as it is now known is a set of two cloisonne vases and a censer, and at the time they were the largest cloisonne pieces ever made. Each vase measuring 5 feet 8 inches tall, the garniture was made under a team of elite artisans including Shirozayemon Suzuki of Yokohama and Seizayemon Tsunekawa of Nagoya. The overall design was specially conceptualised for the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago of 1893 by Shin Shinwoda, who was a Special Counsellor for the Arts of the Japanese Commission.
From The Khalili Collection, the centrepiece of the imposing three-piece garniture that was designed by Araki Kampo (1831-1915) and Oda Kyōsai (1845-1912). It took five years to complete and was displayed at the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, which attracted 27 million visitors. All three pieces were eventually reunited at The Khalili Collection’s Japanese Art of the Meiji Period (1868-1912) after being separated for more than 120 years. Image source: X Buxton Museum. Buxton Museum & Art Gallery, March 21, 2024, Celebrating ‘Edo Pop: Japanese Prints 1825–1895’ @WattsGallery
The sketch and painting was executed by Kiosai Oda of Nagoya and Kanpo Araki of Tokyo respectively; this gathering of elite artisans from all over Japan indicates the importance the Japanese government placed on the garniture. With motifs that at first glance represent the four seasons, the allegorical meaning behind the choice of animals and landscapes further suggested Japan’s political aspirations on the world stage. The three main animals depicted -the dragon, chickens and eagles - traditionally represented wisdom, honesty and strength. Here, however, the eagles - Russia’s imperial symbol - are represented harrying other birds against a winter landscape, hinting at Japan’s perception of Russia as an aggressor in East Asia. The dragon, China’s traditional imperial symbol, is seen on a vase depicting summer transitioning into autumn. China’s waning strength after the Opium Wars and various concessions to western powers was evident to the Japanese and this depiction of China – to which Japan was a vassal state for centuries – indicates Japan’s growing ambition to supplant China as the dominant influence in the Asia-Pacific region. The bronze eagle on the central piece, the censer, represents the United States; the censer’s handles are shaped like chrysanthemums, which symbolise the Japanese imperial family. This, as well as Japan’s rising sun depicted in a spring landscape, suggests Japan’s desire to represent itself as a vibrant country, one heralding a new spring and rising in strength and power starkly juxtaposed with China.
The chickens in the scene, representing Korea, are portrayed as defenceless against the aggressive interests of Russia, with Japan holding itself as on equal footing with China in defending the Korean Peninsula. Overall, in conjunction with the stars and stripes motif on each vase, the intention of Japan to portray itself as an ally to the United States against Russia was visible to astute observers, with the Japan Weekly Mail in April, 1893 remarking that: "The American eagle spreads its wings above a scene where Korea… passes into the sunshine and bloom of Japan's early summer; the national flags of the United States and her Oriental friend intertwine everywhere overhead."
Indeed, a scant two decades later Japan’s political aspirations would come true; but that remains a story to be told in the next issue.