This article first appeared in the Winter 2023 issue of Antiques to Vintage Magazine. Written by Elizabeth Cheung and edited by Julie Carter.
An alluring, immensely desirable and above all enigmatic stone, jade features prominently in many Chinese creation myths. Sydney dealer Billy Robertson and his social media director and research partner, Elizabeth Cheung, seek to demystify some of the more confusing factors surrounding the stone of kings.
In the story of Nuwa Fixes the Sky, the ‘stone egg’ from which the primordial being is born is nephrite. One of the ruling Taoist deities is known as the Jade Emperor, and ruyi scepters were commonly made in jade. Despite its thousands of years of usage, there remains much confusion regarding this stone. Much of its gemmological qualities were first discussed in China and surrounding Asian countries, which remains a barrier when it comes to jade knowledge entering the English lexicon.
In fact, the term ‘jade’ is used for a variety of minerals. Historically, it referred to nephrite and later jadeite. However, it was also used as a term for varying types of green serpentine, and this has contributed to modern confusion that has led to it being an umbrella term for almost every greenstone under the sun.
Part of this confusion stems from differences between Chinese and English grammar. The Chinese character for jade, yu 玉, refers solely to nephrite. Characters placed in front of Yu not only modify the meaning but usually refer to an entirely new stone all together.
For instance, ‘jade’ from the Xiuyan, Dushan and Lantian areas of China are actually forms of serpentine. In general, differentiating them from nephrite and jadeite is relatively easy due to their opaque nature and mottled colouration. While desirable in their own right, these stones are not as valuable as true jade. When jadeite was first introduced to China in the late 18th century, it was immediately recognised as an entirely different mineral and was named fei cui 翡翠.
When it comes to nephrite, however, the story changes. Since Neolithic times, nephrite has been revered in China. Nephrite jade burial artifacts have been excavated and found to be c.3300-2500BC. In the later Han dynasty, kings and princes were buried in suits which were made from thousands of jade pieces. Requiring no less effort than the sarcophagi of Egyptian pharaohs, these burial suits represented the effort and resources not merely of one family but the concentrated power that they held in a region. Generally speaking, archaic and archaistic pieces are nearly always nephrite and typically brown to varying shades of white and green.
Vintage 20th century brown nephrite jade bi disc carved with cosmological and archaistic symbols. Excellent vintage condition. 12.5cm diam, $300
Among all archaic objects, particularly the burial objects which surrounded the ruling dynasties of China’s tombs, jade artifacts seem to have held the most arcane meaning. Such ritual objects were believed to carry immense spiritual power; chief among them were cong and bi discs. Cong were vessels whose square shape symbolised the earth; bi discs, which symbolised the sky, were used in rites invoking the Mandate of Heaven and were believed to join the sky and earth.
By the time of the Ming Dynasty jade carving became increasingly detailed, as scholar-officials used such objects to demonstrate their wealth and taste in subtle ways. The saying, ‘Gold has a price, jade has none’ demonstrates the high regard Chinese literati had for this stone. For instance, the highly figural Ming Dynasty jade wrist rest shown bottom left, sculpted in the form of a mythical luduan beast, would have had pride of place within a scholar’s study to demonstrate his refinement. Similar to a qilin, a luduan is a deer-like creature with a green coat and a single horn in its head. It appears during the reign of an enlight- ened ruler, and it can be seen depicted in the Forbidden City and the imperial throne of China. Archaistic styles would later be reinterpreted by artisans of the 18th century as the Qing Manchu rulers sought to identify themselves with their Han Chinese subjects. By the 19th century, archaistic cups such as this nephrite drinking cup below were en vogue among the literati as well as scholar-officials. With twin dragon handles, the style of this 19th century late Qing cup with its finely done granulation work suggests inspiration from the bronzes of the Eastern Zhou period (770-256 BC).
As can be seen with these examples, some jade contains dark russet inclusions or the brown ‘skin’ of the stone. Early jade carvers would often incorporate this into their design to increase a sense of depth and/or chiaroscuro, which is a good indication that the jade has been carved by a master and may therefore increase the value of the jade carving. Another naturalistic technique is to utilise the shape of the jade to the carving advantage, such as this pebble-form jadeite snuff bottle. Some of the best examples are from the Suzhou school, whose jade carvers are commonly acknowledged to be among the best in China.
For nephrite jade, a translucent white colouration referred to as ‘mutton fat white’ was historically the most desirable, closely followed by celadon with or without russet inclusions. Within China the most prized nephrite deposits were largely found in the Hetian region. In modern times, as appreciation of jade increased in the west, the dark green nephrite known as ‘spinach jade’, which generally originates from the Siberian deposits between China and Russia, is now also considered desirable in the western market. As result, emerald green spinach jade commands attention in both Chinese and western markets.
It was not until the reign of the Emperor Qianlong in the late 1700s that jadeite, in particular the stunning emerald hue known as ‘imperial green’, entered the Chinese consciousness. From the Khotan region which is now modern day Myanmar, jadeite has captured nearly all who first set eyes on it. From emperors to heiresses, artists and magnates, few have escaped its spell.
Qianlong’s near immediate reaction was to attempt seizure of the entire region. Unfortunately the mountainous regions and the ingenuity of local hills people meant that the Qing imperial Bannermen were repelled each time. Qianlong was forced to barter for his jade, although to soothe imperial pride such trades were meticulously recorded as tribute.
‘Mutton fat’ is an important term which refers not only to the whiteness of the jade but also the soft, almost waxy quality of the finest nephrite’s lustre. This lustre, as well as colouration, are perhaps the easiest way to visually distinguish nephrite from jadeite. As well, tapping one piece of jadeite against another (or using a coin if no other options can be found) will produce a particularly crisp sound. The idea that jadeite is ‘real jade’ and nephrite is not, or similar such types of misconceptions, have contributed to nephrite being perhaps the most misunderstood stone on the market. That said, modern gemmology focuses on classifications of jadeite, which will be briefly outlined below.
There are several tiers to each grade, but the traditional classification of jade texture can be defined loosely as ice, glutinous rice and bean. These refer not only to the clarity but also the texture and size of the particles within the jade. While particles (termed ‘cotton’) are essential to the structure and formation of jade, the fineness of the ‘cotton’ is essential in determining the jade’s texture. A simple way of examining the fineness of jade is by holding it to the light. A good commercial jade will generally possess some degree of translucency when held to the light; the ‘cotton’ enhances, rather than detracts. A snowstorm-like quality to the cotton is desirable and indicates the natural clarity of the stone.
Enhancements are a common thing in gemmology; heat treatment, dyes and more. As this tends to happen more frequently in jadeite, this article will largely discuss the common ‘artful dodges’ as they pertain to jadeite. Unnatural, shockingly vivid colours are an indicator, in particular, bright greens and reds. There has been a tendency by particularly cheeky merchants to claim their orange specimen is a rare ‘fire jade’; such cases are always to be taken with a large pinch of salt.
Signs of heat can usually be seen as they affect the crystalline structure of jade. Generally, when holding it to the light, dye and other treatments affect the translucency that can be found in natural jadeite. Treatments that eliminate inclusions also make the stone opaque. Beware of talc, steatite and/or resin composites; the stone should be a single glossy surface, with any marbling as even and saturated as possible. In short, the rule of thumb with jadeite is colouring and cui 翠. Cui is a somewhat nebulous concept that incorporates qualities of light, lustre, transparency and ‘water’, which can be described as possessing the Schiller effect similar to that of moonstone.
Asides from jade, yu has been used to described other varieties: Dushan and Lantian ‘jades’ are perhaps the most well-known ‘jade’ serpentines. Opaque and obvious at first glance to possess an entirely different quality to both jadeite and nephrite, their glossy texture and green hues are perhaps the main similarities. Some other varieties of stone that are commonly described as jade in China are chicken blood jade and bowenite (Suzhou jade).
Chicken blood jade, which in fact is not jade at all, is a rare form of dicliite/kaolinite and quartz with red cinnabar suspended within. Natural examples are extremely rare, particularly vintage or antique examples that preserve its signature vivid red colour. As can be seen above, this Chinese Republic period chicken blood jade seal with fitted red soapstone box bears both modern and archaistic touches. Every inch of this denotes quality, from the well-carved seal box with bevelled base and central chimera motif, to the quality of the inscription itself. Written in seal form script, the inscription is 般若波羅蜜多心經, the full name of the Buddhist Heart Sutra. Such examples, while extremely rare, tend to date from the Qianlong or Republic Period in terms of modern Chinese history.
No discussion of jadeite is complete without mentioning Cartier’s contribution to jade entering the western consciousness. The Hutton-Mdivani necklace, which was given to socialite Barbara Hutton in 1933 by her father as a wedding present, remains one of the finest pieces to ever reach auction. With a price tag of US$27.44 million, it remains the most expensive jadeite jewellery piece to date. As the interest in jade continues to grow, no doubt this magnificent stone will continue to capture our imagination.
Items illustrated are available from Cache Antiques in Sydney. Call Billy or Elizabeth on 0424 404 791.